Society and Politics

No. 3(76)/2023

Michalina Mróz

University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszow

Jakub Boratyn

University of Information Technology and Management in Rzeszow

Student self-assessment of entrepreneurial potential and the decision to start a business

Summary

This article explores the self-assessment of entrepreneurial potential among students, particularly in the context of a post-pandemic world that has seen changes in the labor market and a rise in global uncertainty about employment. In response to these shifts, students are increasingly recognizing the importance of an entrepreneurial mindset, self-reliance and optimize their potential to start their own businesses and thereby achieve greater employment-related independence. The study uses empirical data from a survey conducted on a sample of 1,526 students which is 29.8% of all students at the University of Information Technology and Management (UITM) in Rzeszow. This research sample is representative and comparable across various educational study paths offered in both in Polish and English.

The article emphasizes the importance of setting up new businesses, including online ventures, and at the same time underscores the importance of basic knowledge in the formal and legal aspects of entrepreneurship. These aspects include understanding the forms of legal organization of the enterprises, methods of tax settlement and potential forms of financial support from external entities. The article identifies a gap in the current educational offer, pointing out the necessity for specialized knowledge related not only in starting but also in managing a business effectively.

The study verifies two research hypotheses. Firstly, it reveals that only a limited number of students use their entrepreneurial potential by planning to start new businesses. Secondly, the study finds no significant difference in self-assessment of entrepreneurial potential across genders, indicating a uniform perception of entrepreneurial capabilities among male na female respondents.

Keywords: Entrepreneurial management, business management, leadership, entrepreneurship, business, individual potential.

JEL Codes: J16, L26

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a01

Dorota Gizicka

Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II

Shaping the Social Personality of Young People in the Digital Era. An Outline of the Problem

Summary

Young people function in two worlds, the real and the virtual. The impact of digital media is very significant. However, significant people and authorities must play an important role in the process of growing up. Despite their strong anchoring in the virtual world, young people feel the need for social relationships. They need good role models, inspiring conversations, listening skills and strong reference points. The article attempts to outline several perspectives and problems in the subject area. The personality of the significant other is important in implementing the idea of positively creating good role models among young people. Its influence can be decisive for a young person’s entire life.

Keywords: society, significant person, maturing of a person.

JEL Codes: I23, Z13

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a02

Artur Kwasek

Uczelnia Techniczno-Handlowa w Warszawie

Maria Kocot

Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Katowicach

Analysis of students' attitudes and expectations in the light of own research

Summary

The aim of the article was to analyse the attitudes and expectations of Polish universities towards the educational offer of universities. The article presents the results of the survey conducted in May 2022. The research sample consisted of 1018 students from various Polish universities. The conducted research made it possible to present students' expectations related to the beginning of studies, as well as to specify the issues that determined the choice of the university and fields of study. Weaknesses of the educational offer were also outlined. The acquired knowledge can significantly improve the educational offer, eliminate its shortcomings, and contribute to meeting students' expectations.

Keywords: e-learning, students, university, teaching, Covid-19.

JEL Codes: O10

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a03

Małgorzata Laskowska

Instytut Edukacji Medialnej i Dziennikarstwa

Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie

Ethical Competence: Teaching Model According to the National Communication Association

Summary

Ethical competence is now, not only in the media but in every workplace, a particularly valuable skill. It is acquired or refined, among other ways, during education, such as in communication ethics classes. Therefore, the research objective was to determine the teaching model of communication ethics according to the American association, the National Communication Association. This teaching model was identified based on descriptions of communication ethics courses available on the association's website. Research questions included, among others, What teaching model of communication ethics is promoted by the National Communication Association? What topics are addressed in the teaching of communication ethics? One of the research hypotheses is: Teaching communication ethics according to the National Communication Association is universal, suitable not only for journalists but also for other professions. The content analysis method was employed in the study. The obtained results can contribute to international educational exchange in improving both formal and informal teaching of communication and media ethics.

Keywords: ethical competence, communication ethics, National Communication Association, journalism education, teaching ethics.

JEL Codes: Y90

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a04

Małgorzata Gosek

Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki i Zarządzania z siedzibą w Rzeszowie

Andrzej Adamski

Wyższa Szkoła Informatyki i Zarządzania z siedzibą w Rzeszowie

MEDIA LITERACY IN THE EDUCATIONAL POLICY OF STATE INSTITUTIONS AND THE ACTIVITIES OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN POLAND

Summary

In an era of accelerating development of artificial intelligence and intensifying negative effects of the media on children and adolescents, media literacy education tailored to the new challenges is becoming increasingly important. This article aims to answer the question of how state institutions in Poland carry out the task of media education, particularly aimed at children and adolescents. The goal will be achieved by analyzing the educational policy of state institutions - that is, the minister responsible for education in Poland and the National Broadcasting Council. The authors will also briefly refer to the activities of non-governmental organizations involved in media literacy. The issues discussed in the article were developed based on the analysis of documents, legal acts and literature on the subject. First, the role of the Ministry in charge of education issues is outlined (depending on the historical period, it had different names and responsibilities) and the conclusions of the analysis of legal documents regulating media education of students and teachers are presented. Next, the role of the National Broadcasting Council (KRRiT) in media education was outlined. In the next step, the NGOs' activities and selected media education projects were discussed. Finally, the conclusions of the collected analysis and the revised purpose of the article were summarized.

Keywords: media literacy, National Broadcasting Council, Ministry of Education.

JEL Codes: H75, I28

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a05

Justyna Berniak-Woźny

Tischner European University

Małgorzata Wejsis-Gołębiak

University of Information Technology and Management

Business Diplomacy: A Bibliometric Analysis and Pathways for Future Research

Summary

Business diplomacy acts as a strategic instrument for corporations navigating the intricacies of the global business landscape. This involves establishing, maintaining, and navigating relationships with external organizations and internal stakeholders to achieve business goals and positively influence the business environment. This article presents a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of the field of business diplomacy, aiming to unravel its structure, dynamics, and trends. Three research questions guide the exploration: RQ1. What is the structure of research on business diplomacy? RQ2. What are the dynamics and significant activities within business diplomacy? RQ3. What are the prospective research directions? The bibliometric analysis covered 74 publications extracted from the Scopus database. Employing a two-stage analysis with Microsoft Excel and VOSviewer, the study identifies key contributing countries, authors, sources, and critical themes within the field. Furthermore, a thorough examination of 10 publications, chosen through bibliographic coupling analysis, enhanced the results, identifying key research trends and insights, and contributing to an enriched understanding of the research area. The study concludes by proposing future research paths to guide practitioners and researchers contributing to the evolving landscape of business diplomacy.

Keywords: Business Diplomacy, Economic Diplomacy, Corporate Diplomacy, Bibliometric Analysis, Scientific Mapping, Research Agenda.

JEL Codes: F23, F50

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a06

Ludmiła Stemplewska

Akademia Finansów i Biznesu Vistula

Managing human capital through fear, a controversial path to short-term results

Summary

The aim of the article is to analyse and assess the effects of fear in the workplace by the human capital of enterprises and to present a "12-stage model eliminating fear from managing the development of human capital". Research results confirm that management by fear, although quite often effective in the short term, raises controversy, negative associations and destructive effects. This approach is based on the use of fear, pressure, manipulation and harsh methods to motivate employees to achieve organizational goals or the manager's private goal. Despite the potential benefits, such as immediate results, pilot studies have shown that the long-term consequences for the company and human capital are negative.

Keywords: fear management, model of eliminating fear from managing human capital development.

JEL Codes: M59

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a07

Jolanta Zombirt

Akademia Finansów i Biznesu Vistula

Public money and state aid for banks. Case of Carige Banca

Summary

The main aim of this paper is to clarify circumstances where a member state could engage public money in rescue of ailing banks. It is explained that these funds cannot be directed to financial institutions that have financial problems because of their fault (ex. errors in management). They cannot neither be granted for institutions whose liquidation would not jeopardise the public interest. The main rules on rescuing banks are indicated that are embedded in the Directive on banks’ recovery and resolution.

Article provides examples when the state aid could be recognised by the European Commission as compliant with EU regulations. On the basis of information (mainly from the EC) analysis has been performed of cases when such rescue packages were accepted by the EC. It has been indicated that such acceptance was granted when a state acts according to market rules, i.e. when, for example, for a guarantee a state receives remuneration that would be accepted by a private investor.

A case of liquidated Carige Banca and efforts of the Italian government to rescue it have been described. Conclusions drawn on this base show that attempts of these activities are not always in line with EU regulations and that sometimes can be seen also in other member states.

Keywords: state aid for banks, state as a private market participant.

JEL Codes: G21

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a08

Filip Czepło

Polish Photovoltaic Installation

Piotr F. Borowski

Vistula University

Analysis of legal, political, social and technical aspects concerning enterprises in the energy sector in the era of low-emission economy

Summary

The conducted research using the desk research method aimed to provide a detailed analysis of legal and political aspects influencing the operations of businesses in the energy sector. The scope of the study also included an evaluation of the state's policies, the formation of public-private partnerships, and mobilization of both individual consumers and entrepreneurs towards actions for energy security and the pursuit of a low-emission economy.

The research results revealed that issues related to energy security, climate protection, and greenhouse gas emission reduction are influenced by various factors. A key conclusion is that effective actions in these areas depend not only on diverse structural elements but also on the collaboration between the government, businesses, and individual consumers. Both individual consumers and entrepreneurs play a crucial role in the transformation process towards a secure and low-emission economy.

Legal aspects, such as emission regulations and energy security standards, prove to be significant in shaping the behavior of businesses. The impact of government policies, especially through the establishment of public-private partnerships, can significantly influence the effective achievement of goals related to energy and environmental protection.

Keywords: energy companies, energy policy, emission reduction, energy policy, energy security, low-emission economy, photovoltaic farms.

JEL Codes: Q2, Q4

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a09

Jolanta Załęczny

Akademia im. Aleksandra Gieysztora w Pułtusku

(filia Akademii Finansów i Biznesu Vistula)

The power inherent in words on the example of Ignacy Jan Paderewski's speeches (case study)

Summary

Paderewski - an outstanding composer, pianist and politician - was also gifted as an orator. He expressed this in numerous speeches, consciously operating with a wealth of means of artistic expression. The essence of the article is to draw attention to the power of the verbal message, to its causal power in a specific situation. The analysis of content and form made it possible to indicate the means used by Paderewski to build the message and influence the emotions of the audience. Extended comparisons, vivid descriptions, sophisticated epithets stimulated the imagination and increased the expression of the text. The speaker operated with symbols, appealed to national consciousness. Not only with music, but also with words he built a bond with his listeners. Thanks to this, he went down in the memory of Poles, shaping national consciousness, awakening with words patriotism and spiritual bond with the revived homeland.

Keywords: Paderewski, national consciousness, speech, patriotism.

JEL Codes: Y90

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a10

Juliusz S. Tym

Akademia Sztuki Wojennej

The image of the Army in the eyes of Poznań society in the first years of independence in documents of military provenance

Summary

The aim of the article is to show the image of the Army in the public perception of the Poznań garrison in the years 1919–1921, i.e. the first years of independence. The originality of the approach is narrowing the research area to documents of military provenance, because these issues are much easier to capture in military documents of territorial and garrison authorities than in the currently highly dispersed and incomplete civil documents of the Poznań city authorities. A positive image of the Army was created by the military authorities by organizing military ceremonies, participating in state and religious ceremonies, as well as many educational and cultural events. The military's participation in the celebrations attracted public attention, and the positive effect was reinforced by press articles. A negative image of the Army was created by soldiers breaking the rules of military discipline. The city's inhabitants reacted by submitting complaints to the city hall and the military authorities.

Keywords: Poznań, armed forces, society, image.

JEL Codes: N94

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a11

Sławomir Bylina

Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski Jana Pawła II

The phenomenon of migration of Poles in the face of the outbreak of the Second World War. Outline of the problem

Summary

The aim of the article is to present the research perspective on the phenomenon of migration at the beginning of the Second World War. The paper shows the search for definitions of migration in terms of the environment of origin, factors determining migration, voluntariness (legality), or aspects of migration duration (geographical-demographic, cultural-social, historical, ethical and axiological). The substantive part was divided into three main forms of migration, which, defined by the nature of migration, were divided into Russian deportations to the east, displacements by Germans to the west, and war refugees. The publication uses the historical method, as well as the method of analysis and synthesis of the content. As a result of establishing the main research directions, it was assumed that the directions of migration of Poles in particular directions of the world were signalled, divided into specific continents. Basic statistical data on the number and affiliation of the Polish society divided into military and civilians are also discussed.

Keywords: migration, deportation, resettlement, refugee, society, security, war.

JEL Codes: N94

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a12

Anna Grabowska-Siwiec

Badaczka niezależna

Information work of civilian counterintelligence in the second half of the 1980s and the political transformation in Poland

Summary

The aim of the article is to present the information work of civilian counterintelligence - Department II of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the second half of the 1980s and during the political transformation. A research hypothesis was formulated - the information work of counterintelligence was an important source of knowledge for decision-makers in power both at the end of the Polish People's Republic (PRL) and at the beginning of the Third Polish Republic (III RP). The article uses the method of analysing documents found in the resources of the IPN archives and analogous reasoning regarding the period of the first months of the UOP's activities. An important aspect of the presented analysis is the location of the subject matter and scope of information work of counterintelligence against the background of turbulent geopolitical events in the examined time period. The adopted methodology made it possible to identify: new topics not previously undertaken by counterintelligence, a new form of transmitted data, as well as attempts to adapt the forms of information work developed during the Polish People's Republic to the needs of new decision-makers in the Third Polish Republic.

Keywords: counterintelligence, information, decision-maker.

JEL Codes: K19

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0323.a13

Nr 2(75)/2023

Andrzej Doński

Instytut Ochrony Środowiska - Państwowy Instytut Badawczy

EFFICIENCY ISSUES IN POLAND’S RESEARCH INSTITUTES

Summary

The article aimed to specify the complexity of assessing the management’s efficiency of research institutes in Poland, in the context of the implementation of tasks resulting from their principal and ancillary activities, as well as other assignments commissioned by public administration authorities. The author attempted to clarify the concept of efficiency by reviewing the subject literature, to find a standard unit to assess research institutes' activities in terms of efficiency. The analysis carried out based on a literature review, taking into account the complexity of duties of the research institutes, showed that there was no ultimate typology of efficiency, as research establishments have been set up to carry out a broad range of tasks of an economic, social and scientific nature. For that reason, efficiency can be only assessed against the priority, principal, and commissioned tasks implemented by each institute.

Keywords: efficiency, efficiency analysis, efficiency categories, research institutes.

JEL Codes: D21, H11, I23, D61

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0223.a01

Sławomir Lewandowski

Akademia im. Aleksandra Gieysztora w Pułtusku (filia Akademii Finansów i Biznesu Vistula)

A critical analysis of the relationship between humans and "thinking machines". Possible research questions in the context of institutional ethical interventions using the example of the European Union's "Ethics of Connected and Automated Vehicles"

Summary

The article proposes an analysis of ethical interventions made by European Union bodies in the form of ethical recommendations addressed to artificial intelligence (AI) developers – using the example of ‘Ethics of connected and automated vehicles’ issued by the European Commission. AI is a hitherto undefined precisely phenomenon involving automated data acquisition and processing. For the purposes of this article, AI is defined as a technology that enables machines to „learn from experience, adapt to new information and perform human-like tasks” (www16).

The proposed analysis would be semantic (examining the basic concepts used to justify interventions) and teleological (examining the intentions behind interventions). The recommendations addressed to AV developers and users, given the clearly defined scope included in the twenty theses, allow for a coherent analysis of the EU institutions attitude towards technology in its early stages of development.

Keywords: artificial intelligence, autonomous vehicle, ethics.

JEL Codes: O38

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0223.a02 

Maria Kocot

Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Katowicach

Artur Kwasek

Uczelnia Techniczno-Handlowa w Warszawie

Determinants building trust among employees of the organization in the light of own research

Summary

Trust plays a huge role in all aspects of an organization's operation. Therefore, it is extremely important to build such trust among employees. The aim of the article is to analyze the determinants that build trust among employees of the organization. It was hypothesized that these determinants are commonly used by Polish organizations. To verify this hypothesis, in December 2022, surveys were conducted in accordance with the CAWI technique standards on a sample of 426 people. The conducted research showed that a number of factors are practiced in the workplace of the respondents that strengthen trust among employees of the organization. The most important of them are creating an atmosphere of trust and honesty, jointly discussing problems and concerns at regular meetings, developing an appropriate incentive system, and employee participation in managing the organization. Research has also shown that motivational factors play an important role in building trust among employees.

Keywords: trust, organization, employees, human resources, motivation.

JEL Codes: O10

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0223.a03

Patrycja Tyborowska 

Akademia im. Aleksandra Gieysztora w Pułtusku (filia Akademii Finansów i Biznesu Vistula)

Analysis of political party programs as part of research on the origins of the right to public information, civil society and self-government in Poland

Summary

The study presents the results of an analysis of the programs of political parties in the 1997 parliamentary elections. The research of the archival materials collected in the Archives of Political Parties of the Polish Academy of Sciences was carried out in order to show whether the issues of access to public information, self-government and participation were an important element of the election programs. The article was divided into three main issues, however, each of them was discussed from two perspectives - legal-administrative and political-sociological. Such an assumption was aimed at comparing to what extent the formation of political party programs and the demands contained in them are due to legal-administrative requirements, and to what extent to the political and social situation of a country. The first part of the study was devoted to the essence of political party programs and their role in democratic states. The second part of the paper discusses the issue of civil society and access to information in election programs in the 1997 parliamentary elections. The last section of the paper, meanwhile, deals with the concept of self-government in the surveyed program documents.

Keywords: access to information, participation, election programs, programs of political parties.

JEL Codes:  H7

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0223.a04

Milena Kindziuk

Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie

The Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate towards the war of the Russian Federation in Ukraine on the website of the Catholic Information Agency. Case study

Summary

The aim of the article is to determine the position of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (UOC-MP) towards the war of the Russian Federation in Ukraine on the website of the Catholic Information Agency (CIA) in the first year after the aggression on February 24, 2022. The research is a case study. The research method of qualitative content analysis and the press discourse analysis method were used. The analysis undertaken proved that the texts published on the CIA website between February 24, 2022 and February 24, 2023 clearly show that in fact the UOC-MP was still part of the Russian Orthodox Church in the first year of the war and in fact approved its support for Russian aggression and crimes committed in Ukraine. The ambiguous position and opportunism of Patriarch Onufriy were presented, the inconsistent attitude of the Council of the UOC-MP was also presented, and the disapproval of some bishops and clergy of the UOC-MP towards the war was shown, pointing to the split and identity crisis in the UOC-MP.

Keywords: Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (UOC-MP), Patriarch Onufriy, Catholic Information Agency, war in Ukraine.

JEL Codes: D74, Z12

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0223.a05

Małgorzata Smoleń-Bojańczyk

Akademia Finansów i Biznesu Vistula

Controversies related to fair value measurement

Summary

In a dynamic and turbulent economic environment, current, reliable, complete and credible information plays a particularly important role. The high quality of this information reduces the information asymmetry of its users. Task of accounting is to prepare and deliver such information to interested recipients.

There are a huge number of accounting regulations in modern accounting (various accounting standards). After each crisis, there is an increased tendency to introduce new regulations, but this does not solve the basic problems of ensuring good quality and reliable economic information. However, particular problems arise with the valuation of assets and liabilities based on estimated values, including the use of fair value measurement. This problem is so important, that it required the introduction of new international regulations in the field of accounting law. This article is an attempt to highlight the most important doubts related to the quality of financial information, in particular the application of the fair value method and its impact on the quality of financial information.

Keywords: asset and liability valuation, fair value, mark-to-market, financial reporting standards.

JEL Codes: A19

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0223.a06

Mirosław BOJAŃCZYK

Akademia Finansów i Biznesu Vistula

Valuation of the company's brand

Summary

In modern world, intangible assets play an increasingly important role. The value of the brand can be considered a key part of the intangible assets of each company. The article discusses problems related to the valuation of enterprise brands, with particular emphasis on Polish enterprises. It presents, among others the results of valuations over 200 enterprises according to own methodology.

The article presents own methodology of brand valuation, which includes using the DCF method based on analysis of financial reports, surveys and stock exchange data. The study emphasizes the complexity of the brand's valuation, especially in conditions of growing instability and high market variability.

The conducted research leads to the conclusion that there is no one brand valuation method that could be considered a method that allows for an objective valuation. It is possible to use various methods and various assumptions.

Keywords: brand valuation, intangible assets, goodwill valuation, value of Polish brands.

JEL Codes: A19

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0223.a07

No. 1(74)/2023

Aleksandra Tołczyk

Szkoła Główna Handlowa w Warszawie

Joanna Sozańska

Instytut Bezpieczeństwa i Rozwoju Międzynarodowego

Translator/Interpreter as Cultural Mediator in Law Enforcement setting. Case of Muslim migrants - Police and Border Guard officers’ encounter in Poland

Summary

Translators’ and interpreters’ social and cultural competences allow them to discuss encounters between law enforcement officers and Muslims and point out the weaknesses in these relations. The aim of the article is to explore the role of interpreters and translators as (inter)cultural mediators in Police/Border Guards’ encounters with Muslims. The study used qualitative methodology and semi-structured individual interviewing with six translators/interpreters to derive answers to the following research questions: What roles do interpreters and translators play as (inter)cultural mediators? What additional tasks do they perform? What is the experience of the interpreters and the translators with assisting the Police and the Border Guard officers during interactions with the Muslim population? What is the impact of the anti-Muslim sentiment and officers’ attitudes towards Islam on these contacts from the perspective of the responders?

Keywords: Police, Border Guard, Muslims, translation, cultural mediation.

JEL Codes: K14, Z12, Z19

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0123.a01

Maria Kocot

Uniwersytet Ekonomiczny w Katowicach

Artur Kwasek

Uczelnia Techniczno-Handlowa w Warszawie

Students' attitudes towards distance learning as a component of education 4.0

Summary

The article aimed to analyze students' attitudes towards distance learning as a component of education 4 0. The article presents the results of a survey conducted in 2021 at three universities:

Helena Chodkowska University of Technology and Economics (UTH) and Vistula University in Warsaw (VISTULA), WSB Universities (WSB). The research sample consisted of 383 students. Thanks to the use of the Pearson correlation coefficient, the relationship between satisfaction with distance learning and the effectiveness of the teaching process using distance learning was determined

The conducted considerations gave a picture of the most frequently used tools used during distance learning. They also made it possible to assess the degree of satisfaction with the effectiveness of remote learning and to change the preferences for conducting classes at universities. The conducted research showed that students positively assess the satisfaction and effectiveness of remote classes conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, which was confirmed by the Pearson correlation.

Keywords: remote learning, education 4.0, students, digitization.

JEL Codes: O10

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0123.a02

Daniel Matusiak

Uniwersytet SWPS w Warszawie

Michał Wenzel

Uniwersytet SWPS w Warszawie

The emergence of a rural social movement in the light of the resource mobilization theory. Spatial analysis

Summary

We analyse the activities of the Agrounia movement using the resource mobilization theory. Using Protest Event Analysis as research method we test the assumption that one of the main resources of rural social movements is the nature of leadership, and structural factors are an important constraint on resource mobilization. Geographical data on protests are processed on two levels of administrative divisions. Agrounia located its protests in locations with two features. First of all, they were important from the point of view of communication routes. Secondly, the participants, as a result of structural mobilization opportunities, live and work relatively close to the place of action.

Keywords: Agrounia, rural social movement, protest, geographical analysis.

JEL Codes: C31

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0123.a03

Dariusz Faszcza

Akademia im. Aleksandra Gieysztora w Pułtusku

ESTABLISHMENT OF CIVILIAN CONTROL OF THE POLISH ARMY IN 1989–1997

Summary

The article discusses the process of creating political control over the Polish Army in the period from the designation of Tadeusz Mazowiecki to the position of Prime Minister in 1989 until the establishment of institutional and legal solutions in the form of the adoption of the Constitution in April 1997. Its key moments against the backdrop of events are indicated that were taking place in Poland at that time, with emphasis on how the aid was provided to the Polish authorities by external factors. This process was not without conflicts, and its completion was possible to a large extent thanks to the help provided by the governments of Western countries and Euro-Atlantic institutions.

Keywords: civilian control of the military, Polish Army, North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

JEL Codes: K19

DOI: doi.org/10.34765/sp.0123.a04